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Research peptides, in plain language

Short, original summaries of what published research says, what is still unknown and where each compound stands with the FDA. Every entry links to its public sources. Summaries describe research only and are not usage or health guidance.

All entries are drafts for Crysta to review before launch.

BPC-157

Draft: Crysta to review Last checked Nov 11, 2026

Also known as
Body Protection Compound-157; “stable gastric pentadecapeptide”
What it is
A lab-made chain of 15 amino acids. Its sequence comes from a protein first described in human gastric juice.
Research status
Almost all published work is in animals and cell cultures. A 2025 systematic review found 36 studies through mid-2024: 35 were preclinical and one was a small retrospective report in 12 people with no control group. Animal studies looked mainly at tendon, ligament, muscle and bone healing.
Risks and unknowns
That review found no clinical safety data in humans. The authors warn about risks from unregulated manufacturing and contamination. The FDA cites possible immune reactions (immunogenicity), impurities and too little safety information. The review also notes it is banned in professional sports.
US regulatory status
Not approved by the FDA for any use. It appears on the FDA’s list of bulk drug substances it flagged for potential significant safety risks in compounding; the nomination to allow it was withdrawn.
Sources
  1. FDA: Certain bulk drug substances for use in compounding that may present significant safety risks
  2. Vasireddi N, et al. Emerging Use of BPC-157 in Orthopaedic Sports Medicine: A Systematic Review. HSS J. 2025 (PMID 40756949)
  3. Gwyer D, et al. Gastric pentadecapeptide body protection compound BPC 157 and its role in accelerating musculoskeletal soft tissue healing. Cell Tissue Res. 2019 (PMID 30915550)

TB-500

Draft: Crysta to review Last checked Nov 11, 2026

Also known as
Thymosin beta-4 fragment
What it is
A short lab-made fragment related to thymosin beta-4 (Tβ4). Tβ4 is a natural protein found in most human cells, where it helps manage actin, part of the cell’s internal skeleton.
Research status
The full Tβ4 protein has been studied in labs and in some early clinical research, for example on the surface of the eye. Findings about the full protein do not automatically apply to the short fragment sold as TB-500.
Risks and unknowns
The FDA says it has not identified any human exposure data for drug products containing this fragment, and lists possible immune reactions and impurities as concerns.
US regulatory status
Not approved by the FDA for any use. It appears on the FDA’s compounding safety-risk list (listed as “Thymosin beta-4, fragment (LKKTETQ), also known as TB-500”); the nomination was withdrawn.
Sources
  1. FDA: Certain bulk drug substances for use in compounding that may present significant safety risks
  2. Sosne G. Thymosin beta 4 and the eye: the journey from bench to bedside. Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2018 (PMID 30063853)
  3. Mendias CL, Awan TM. Safety and Efficacy of Approved and Unapproved Peptide Therapies for Musculoskeletal Injuries and Athletic Performance. Sports Med. 2026 (PMID 41966639)

GHK-Cu

Draft: Crysta to review Last checked Nov 11, 2026

Also known as
Copper peptide; glycyl-L-histidyl-L-lysine copper
What it is
A very small peptide (three amino acids) bound to copper. GHK occurs naturally in human blood plasma, and researchers report that levels fall with age.
Research status
Studied mostly in skin and cosmetic science. It is a common ingredient in skin-care products, and lab studies look at collagen and gene-activity effects. Rigorous human data beyond skin products are limited.
Risks and unknowns
The FDA notes limited human data and possible immune reactions and impurities for one specific route of administration (see the FDA source). That listing does not address cosmetic skin products.
US regulatory status
Not approved by the FDA as a drug. One specific route of administration appears on the FDA’s compounding safety-risk list; the nomination was withdrawn.
Sources
  1. FDA: Certain bulk drug substances for use in compounding that may present significant safety risks
  2. Pickart L, Margolina A. Regenerative and Protective Actions of the GHK-Cu Peptide in the Light of the New Gene Data. Int J Mol Sci. 2018 (PMID 29986520)

AOD-9604

Draft: Crysta to review Last checked Nov 11, 2026

Also known as
Anti-Obesity Drug 9604; modified growth hormone fragment 177–191
What it is
A lab-made peptide based on the tail end (amino acids 177 to 191) of human growth hormone, with a small modification.
Research status
Its developer studied it in human clinical trials for weight management in the early 2000s. It did not become an approved medicine. Newer reviews say rigorous human safety data remain scarce.
Risks and unknowns
The FDA says it has no or only limited safety information, and that it has identified serious adverse events that may be associated with AOD-9604, though causality is not clear. It also cites possible immune reactions and impurities.
US regulatory status
Not approved by the FDA for any use. It appears on the FDA’s compounding safety-risk list; the nomination was withdrawn.
Sources
  1. FDA: Certain bulk drug substances for use in compounding that may present significant safety risks
  2. Wilding J. AOD-9604 Metabolic. Curr Opin Investig Drugs. 2004 (PMID 15134286)
  3. Mendias CL, Awan TM. Safety and Efficacy of Approved and Unapproved Peptide Therapies… Sports Med. 2026 (PMID 41966639)

MOTS-c

Draft: Crysta to review Last checked Nov 11, 2026

Also known as
Mitochondrial open reading frame of the 12S rRNA type-c
What it is
A 16-amino-acid peptide encoded in mitochondrial DNA (the small set of genes inside mitochondria, the cell’s energy centers). Researchers first described it in 2015.
Research status
Research is mostly in cells and mice, looking at metabolism, insulin sensitivity and how the body responds to exercise. Human data are early and limited.
Risks and unknowns
The FDA says it has not identified any human exposure data on drug products containing MOTS-c, and lists possible immune reactions and impurities as concerns.
US regulatory status
Not approved by the FDA for any use. It appears on the FDA’s compounding safety-risk list; the nomination was withdrawn.
Sources
  1. FDA: Certain bulk drug substances for use in compounding that may present significant safety risks
  2. Lee C, et al. The mitochondrial-derived peptide MOTS-c promotes metabolic homeostasis and reduces obesity and insulin resistance. Cell Metab. 2015 (PMID 25738459)
  3. Zheng Y, et al. MOTS-c: A promising mitochondrial-derived peptide for therapeutic exploitation. Front Endocrinol. 2023 (PMID 36761202)

NAD+

Draft: Crysta to review Placeholder: regulatory status to confirm Last checked Nov 11, 2026

Also known as
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (not a peptide)
What it is
Not a peptide. NAD+ is a coenzyme found in every living cell, where it helps turn food into energy and supports DNA repair.
Research status
Much of the research is on NAD+ precursors such as nicotinamide riboside (NR) and nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN), which the body converts to NAD+. Human studies so far are mostly small and short.
Risks and unknowns
Long-term human safety data are limited, especially for forms other than the precursors studied in clinical trials.
US regulatory status
We did not find an FDA-approved drug product containing NAD+. Regulatory status depends on the product form. Crysta to confirm before publishing.
Sources
  1. Alegre GFS, Pastore GM. NAD+ Precursors Nicotinamide Mononucleotide (NMN) and Nicotinamide Riboside (NR): Potential Dietary Contribution to Health. Curr Nutr Rep. 2023 (PMID 37273100)

Regulatory status was checked against the FDA page linked in each entry on Nov 11, 2026. FDA lists change; recheck before relying on them.